SORRY! IT'S FROM WED TO FRI
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OH YA. BBQ WILL BE ON THE FIRST DAY. SO SADLY, there won't be another bbq and perhaps we'll just go to downtown east to finish our dinner the second day (:
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YEA! I know most of you are looking forward to this (i suppose -.-), thus, I've decided to organize it once more. I know, I suck at this, but no choice, no one sacrifices=no chalet.
ONCE AGAIN, I'm REALLY SUPER SORRY for the choosing of the same chalet, but there is really not choice as Aloha Loyang, a bigger chalet, costs 2X more and is currently FULL till January. Coasta Sands Pasir Ris again. SORRY.
I sincerely wish that ALL OF THE PEOPLE in the class would attend, regardless of whether you are busy that day. AND because of that, it has became a 3D 2N EVENT. Some people may not be able to attend the first day and they can choose to come at the second day and stay overnight till the third day. Also, if you can only come on the first day and stay over till the second day, that's fine with me too. You can also choose to just come and NOT stay overnight. But we REALLY encourage you to stay overnight as it's the last time we are together already.
Details..
29th October - 31st October (Thursday - Saturday morning)
Meet at White Sands shopping mall (beside Pasir Ris MRT) at about 1pm.
We WILL take a bus there together while my father go to check in
WE MAY be going to wild wild wet on the second day so please prepare your swimming costume. However, if you dun wan to do there, there are still a lot more other places in downtown you to visit which is DRY.
On the last day, perhaps some people would choose to go escape themed park with me (i know it's darn expensive) but it's HALLOWEEN and they have a special event called the Fortune Telling thingy. Sadly, I have only 1 FREE entry into Escape so perhaps you all have to purchase one.
SO WHO IS GOING WITH ME. LET'S MAKE THE LAST OF 210 A MEMORABLE ONE!
Btw, using class fund to pay, so even if you're not going, you still have to pay (:
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Wednesday, October 8, 2008
ZZZ. AS REQUESTED BY SYLVIA. SHIT.
Ecology
Living organisms and their environment
-Ecology is a study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment
>Biotic [living]
>Physical (Abiotic) [non-living]
Physical Environment
-The physical environment depends on the place where an organism lives, that is, its Habitat
-These physical conditions determine the types of organisms that will live there. Soe organisms have special features that help them live in their habitat
-These organisms are adapted to their environment
Factors of Physical Environment
-Light
-Temperature
-Mineral Salts and Salinity
-Air
-Water
-pH
Light
-Green plants need light to make food through photosynthesis
-Light intensify determines the types o plants and thus, the types of animals that are found in a habitat
-Most animals require light to see so that they can move around, find food and avoid danger
Temperature
-Temperature affects the activities of all living organisms
-To survive under more extreme temperatures, certain organisms have special adaptive features of behaviour
-During winter, many birds fly to warmer climates to avoid the cold
For example. The polar bear has a thick coat of fur, which keeps it warm in the polar region
Water
ALL organisms need water to survive
-The amount of water in any place is determined by the amount of rainfall it receives throughout the year
Some organisms are able to survive in conditions where there is a limited supply of water such as the desert
Example 1. The spiny leaves of the cactus reduce the transpiration rates - and thus, water loss. The thick green fleshy stem that helps to store water can also carry out photosynthesis
Example 2. Camels can survive for a week or longer without any water
Air
-Plants need carbon dioxide to perform photosynthesis
-Land organisms take in Oxygen from the air, while more aquatic organisms take in oxygen dissolved in water
-Calcium is needed by plants protein pumps (in cell membrane) to pump in ions during active Transport
Mineral Salts and Salinity
-Mineral Salts are important in the manufacture of many important substances such as proteins, vitamins, and chlorophyll.
-animals obtain mineral salts from the food they eat.
-Plants absorb mineral salts from the soil solution
-Some aquatic organisms are adapted for life in very salty water such as the sea while others are adapted to live in streams and freshwater ponds
pH (Acidity/Alkalinity)
-The pH value of soil solution or water in freshwater ponds and sea water determines the type of organisms that can live in such environments
-Fresh water organisms live in fresh water (neutral pH of about 7)
-Marine organisms live in the sea (slightly alkaline with a pH of about 8)
-The pH value of water also changes during different times of the day. In strong sunlight, aquatic plants use Carbon Dioxide to perform photosynthesis. This makes the water more alkaline. Generally, most plants grow well in neutral or slightly alkaline soils.
-However, some plants grow better in acidic soils
E.G Pitcher plant
Biotic Environment
-The biotic environment refers to all the living organisms in a habitat
-Organisms interact with each other in different ways:
>Predater-prey relationship
>Parasitism
>Mutualism
Predator-prey relationship
-The predator is an animal that lives by killing and eating other animals. The prey is the animal that is killed and eaten by the predator
Parasitism
-This is a relationship between 2 organisms in which the parasite benefits at the expense of the host - doing some harm to it's host
Mutualism
-This is a relationship between 2 organisms by which both benefit from.
E.g. Ants protect aphids from their predators in return for the honeydew secreted by the aphids. Honeydew is a source of food for the ants.
Ecosystems
-A group of organisms of the same kind is called population
E.g: mudskippers, squirrels, humans
-Different populations or organisms living together in the same habitat make up a community
Community = Populations + Habitat
-An ecosystem consists of communities of living organisms interacting with one another and with their physical environment
-In a mangrove ecosystem, you may find a community - made up of:
> a population of monitor lizards,
> a population of mangrove plants,
> and a population of mudskippers
-The Earth can be regarded as one big ecosystem called the Biosphere
-There are many ecosystems in the world:
>Tropical Rainforests
>Grasslands
>Tundra
>Mountains
>Deserts
>Oceans
>Seashores
>Mangroves
>Ponds
Ecosystem - Producers, Consumers, Decomposers
Producers are green plants that manufacture food substances from simple nutrients like carbon dioxide and water. Green plants convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy and store it as complex nutrients like carbohydrates.
Consumers are animals that obtain energy and nutrients from the other organisms they feed on.
-Animals feeding directly on plants are primary consumers
-Animals feeding on primary consumers are secondary consumers
-Animals feeding on secondary consumer are tertiary consumers
Decomposers such as Fungi and Bacteria break down the complex nutrients in excreta and dead bodies of organisms to set free:
-Carbon dioxide which escapes into the atmosphere
-Soluble mineral salts which dissolve in the soil water
What is a food chain?
-It is a series of organisms through which energy and food are transferred from one organism to another.
What is a food web?
-In a community, food chains are inter-linked to form a food web.
-There are complex food relationships that occur in natural ecosystems
Pyramid of Energy
-The pyramid of energy is used in expressing the energy present in each level of the food chain
-The total energy level decreases progressively along the food chain. This is because a lot of energy is lost to the environment as food is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
Energy is lost as
- heat during respiration
-excretory matter and undigested food from consumers
>the total energy decreases progressively along a food chain
>90% of energy is lost as food is transferred along a food chain
(P.S. I can't draw out a pyramid of energy, go check the net)
Nutrient Cycles
-Nutrients and energy are continuously used and transferred in an ecosystem. In a stable and balanced ecosystem, no nutrients are lost.
-This is due to nutrients being continually taken up from the physical environment and being used by living organisms. After which, they are then released into the physical environment to be reused by other living organisms.
NOTE: While nutrients can be continually recycled through the ecosystem, the energy that flows through cannot be recycled.
The carbon Cycle
-Carbon is an important element in living things. It is part of the proteins, carbohydrates and fats in the tissues of living things.
-The processes by which carbon dioxide is removed and returned to the atmosphere make up the Carbon Cycle.
-The carbon cycle helps to keep the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air relatively constant (at about 0.03%)
Removal of CO2 from the atmosphere
-during photosynthesis, green plants take in CO2 to make glucose.
-Preserved in fossil fuel E.g coal, oil
Inclusion of CO2 into the atmosphere
-During respiration, food like glucose is broken down and CO2 released
-When decomposers break down dead organisms, CO2 is released
-The burning of fossil fuel releases CO2
Carbon Cycle ensures that:
-A constant supply of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
-Carbon Dioxide is recycled in the ecosystem and is not lost
-Carbon compounds rich in energy can be supplied to other organisms
The NITROGEN cycle
-Nitrogen is also an essential element in living things. It is needed to make proteins that are used for the growth of tissue.
-The processes by which Nitrogen is removed from the soil and returned to it in the form of nitrates make up the Nitrogen Cycle
Removal of Nitrogen from Soil
-Plants absorb Nitrogen compounds through their roots and use them to make proteins; animals get proteins by feeding on plants and other animals
-Denitrifying bacteria in the soil change nitrates into nitrogen gas
-Lost by leaching -nitrates that are dissolved in the rain water and are washed away
Inclusion of Nitrogen into Soil
-Proteins in dead organisms are broken down into ammonium compounds by decomposition, and released to the soil
-Ammonium compounds are converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
-In nitrogen fixation, atmospheric Nitrogen is converted to nitrates by bacteria in root nodules and by lightning.
-Lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen to react to form nitrogen oxides, which then dissolve in rain water and are changed to nitrates in the soil
Nitrogen Cycle ensures that:
-Nitrogen is recycled in the ecosystem and is not lost
-A continuous supply of nitrates for green plants to convert to protein. From green plants, proteins are passed down in the food chain
-The nitrogen level in the atmosphere is kept constant
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BOO. Why am I doing this job again. Argh, forget it...
Chapter 3 - Digestion in Animals
Why need food?
- for energy to work our muscles
- for growth and repair of our body parts/cells
- to stay healthy
- for us to perform our daily activities
What is in food?
Main nutrients are...
- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Fibre
- Water
- Mineral Salts
Carbohydrates
Functions...
- Immediate source of energy
- part of DNA
- makes up plant cell wall
Made up of Carbon(c), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
ratio of H and O is 2:1
Glucose = C6H12O6
Can be grouped as..
- Simple Sugars
>one unit of sugar
>E.g. Glucose
-Complex Sugars
>2 simple sugar molecules joined together
>E.g. Maltose
-Starch
>Stored in plant tissues
>Many glucose molecules joined together
>Insoluble
-Cellulose
>found in the cell walls of plant cells
>man cannot digest it
>many glucose joined together in a different way
PROTEINS
Functions...
-build new cells for growth and repair
-make chemicals such as enzymes for essential functions
-made up of C,H,O and Nitrogen (N)
-Protein is large and insoluble and is made up of many small molecules called amino acids
FATS
Functions:
-Source of energy
-building of protoplasm e.g. cell membranes
-insulate body against heat lost
-made up of C,H and O but has a lot of H atoms compared to carbohydrates
What occurs to digested food?
-Digested food diffuses into the blood and into cells through partially permeable membranes
-Energy stored in digested food is then released in cells during cellular respiration
What is digestion?
-Breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small, soluble molecules
-Our body produces digestive enzymes to aid in the breaking down of food
What are enzymes?
-chemical substances which can speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
-remain unchanged at the end of reactions
-can also be called biological catalyst
-made of proteins
Properties of Enzymes
-Very specific. Only breakdown certain food. Like the lock and key.
-increases the surface area of food thus speeds up the rate of reaction
-sensitive to temperature as it is made up of proteins thus
>when too cold, enzymes become inactive
>when too hot, enzymes become denatured
-denatured?? Enzymes loses it's specific structure thus cannot breakdown food molecule
-Sensitivity to pH(acidity or alkalinity)
-most enzymes work best at neutral pH
-some enzymes work best at acidic/alkaline conditions
-Optimum temperature, 40
Types of digestive enzymes
-Starch Molecule>Maltose>(maltase)Glucose
-Protein Molecule>(Protease)polypeptides>(protease)amino acids
-Fat Molecule>(lipase)glycerol+fatty acids
The digestive system
-organs included in the digestive system are
>mouth
>oesophagus/gullet
>stomach
>small intestines
>large intestines
-organs that aid in digestion
>salivary gland
>liver
>pancreas
>gall bladder
Digestion
1. Mechanical/ Physical Digestion
-teeth, tongue and muscles help to break big pieces of food into smaller pieces
2. Chemical Digestion
-breakdown of large food molecules into smaller ones
Digestion in mouth
Teeth - Chewing with teeth helps break down food mechanically.
Salivary Gland - Mucin soften food and Amylase digest starch to maltose
Tongue - Rolls food into small, slippery masses called bolus.
Mouth:
functions:
-chew food into small pieces with teeth
-saliva wets food
-tongue rolls food into small balls and pushes it to the back of the mouth (oesophagus)
-food is swallowed
>enzymes involved
-Salivary amylase which is found in saliva produced by the salivary glands
-digests cooked starch into maltose
Oesophagus
-A long muscular tube leading to stomach
Functions:
-muscles alternately contract and relax to push ball of food downwards
-known as Pertistalsis
>Enzyme involved
-No enzymes present
-but digestion of starch continues to take place
Stomach
-A muscular bag with acidic environment
Functions:
-stomach muscles contract and relax to further break up the food
-produces a digestive juice called gastric juice from the gastric glands
-only digest proteins
>Enzymes involved
-proteases (rennin and pepsin)
pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides
renins converts soluble milk proteins to insoluble milk proteins
Digestion in Stomach
-Gastric juice secreted pH about 2
-Gastric juice contains : Hydrochloric Acid (diluted, Rennin and Pepsin (enzymes)
Gastric Juice
-Produced by the gastric glands found in the walls of the stomach
-Contains
>Hydrochloric (HCl)
>Protease > Rennin and Pepsin
-HCl:
1. Stops action of salivary amylase
2. Changes the inactive proteases into their active forms
3. Provides acidic medium for action of gastric enzymes
4. Kills germs and certain potential parasites
Small Intestine
-about 6m long muscular tube with alkaline environment
-connected to the liver and pancreas
Functions:
-mixes food with 3 digestive juices
>intestinal juice
>bile (liver)
>pancreatic juice (pancreas)
-Digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates occurs
-absorption of digested nutrient
Bile
-Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
-yellowish-green fluid
-do not contain enzymes, only aids in the process of digestion
Functions
-Breaks up fats/oil into very small oil droplets /globules
-known as Emulsification
-thus increase Surface Area of Fats for faster digestion by lipase
Carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine
Enzyme involved:
-pancreatic amylase
-maltase,lactase, sucrase (found in intestinal juice)
Protein digestion in the small intestine
-Enzymes involved:
>typsin
>erepsin
>enterokinase
Fat digestion in the small intestine
-Enzymes involved
>pancreatic and intestinal lipase
Large intestine
-Shorter but broader than the small intestine
- about 1.5m long
-The undigested food, mainly fibre, from the small intestine will enter the large intestine
-No digestion takes place here
Functions:
-absorb water and mineral salts in the colon
-the solid waste will be stored in the rectum
-faeces will be forced out from the anus
Large intestine
Consists of...
- caecum
- appendix
- ascending colon
- horizontal colon
- descending colon
- rectum
- anus
DONE.
OMG. SO EFFING LONG. YOU ALL BETTER SCORE WELL HOR.
NOTICE: Ecology is also tested for tomorrow. (:
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Tuesday, October 7, 2008
Here are the literature notes for the themes of Oliver Twist. For those little lazy pigs who didn't bother to copy during class =P!!!
1. Triumph of good over evil
- Good represented by characters like Mr Brownlow, Oliver, Nancy
- Evil represented by characters like, Fagin, Monks, Old Sally, The board members/ people who took care of the poor
- Nancy changed for the better
- In the end, the good gets justice
- Oliver found out his identity/ fortune/ status
- Mr Brownlow reunites with Oliver after his insistence in protecting/ believing Oliver
- Old Sally is full of regret and guilt at her deathbed
- Fagin is thrown into jail
- Sikes killed himself due to hallucination
2. Social Class, Social distinction which resulted in discrimination against the lower social class
- Oliver as lowly caste/ class due to parentage and as orphan
- Social discrimination against the poor, negatively stereotyped personalities
> Examples: Grimwig, the Judge, Mr Bumble (page 48,17), Mrs Mann, Noah Claymore, Sowerberrys (page 11, Mr Sowerberry/ page 13 Mr Sowerberry/ page 13 Mrs Sowerberry/ page 14, Claymore)
3. Failure of Charity/ hypocrisy in charitable organisation
- Old Sally in the beginning already taking advantage of the poor and down trodden, Oliver's mother
- Board members luxurious living conditions VS conditions of the workers
4. Poverty and it's vicious cycle
- Characters in poverty resort to theft and pickpocketing (Charley Bates, Artful Dodger, Fagin)
- Vicious cycle and self-fulfilling prophecy
- Inability to escape from the mould of poverty as society does not allow it
Thats all... Good luck for the Exams tomorrow. Also, Charactization and Plot Structure is tested, please be sure to study them too! There will also be an unseen prose which will take up quite a majority of the marks!
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Saturday, October 4, 2008
Good luck 210 for upcoming examinations!
3 papers down and 5 more to go....
Maths are testing all the topics that we've learned in sec 2.
All the best.
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